Essay Questions

Essay Questions For the first time in two years, Wharton has decided to change the second essay question while essay 1 will remain the same. Wharton has an additional required essay for reapplicants along with an optional essay. NVCC's admissions and financial aid teams are ready to help you get started so you can experience the difference a college education can make. Your first step is to submit an application for admission online. Best for students who know they want to attend law school as early as their freshman year in college. Admission to law school for our clients is our professional responsibility and this is a responsibility we take very seriously. That is why in partnering with us you will always be working one-on-one with someone who is a former voting member of an admissions committee at a law school. In addition, your application will be reviewed by a highly detail-oriented professional editor before it is submitted. We create a distinctive brand for each client, and it is that brand that takes applicants right on the edge and makes them memorable to be elevated into an admit. Although we encourage early application to provide you with additional benefits, we accept applicants on a rolling basis throughout the year, so you can apply at any time. Abby Power’s approach was the perfect balance of holding my son accountable for his role in the process, while ensuring that he felt supported throughout. We believe that approach made all the difference in terms of successfully targeting the schools that were right for him, while preparing him for the responsibilities of college life. Your faculty mentor assists you in finding educational resources and challenges, and your peer mentor helps you with the transition to college life. Join a community where students are transformed into reflective, adaptable, life-long learners. As you think about your future, also think about your skill gaps and how a Wharton MBA, specifically, will help you to close these gaps. Be sure to show an understanding of Wharton’s culture here. Avoid vague statements and copy and pasting from other essays. The Wharton School has confirmed the application essays. Find out more about our Admissions Support Program. You're about to read a bulletproof example of a admissions essay that helped secure the author offers to Harvard, Yale, Princeton, UPenn, Columbia, Duke, and Stanford . Crafting an unforgettable personal essay that expresses who you are and what you can bring to campus life can be the difference between you becoming an alumnus of the college or not. Crimson’s holistic approach provides support across all areas of the US university application process. Everybody puts an inspirational quote at the top of their essays in order to accurately represent their take on life, and admin staff has heard them all. Writing your college admission essay does not have to be a difficult task. Most of it is writing about yourself, and you should know yourself pretty well, so it should be easy. In 2015 the National Association for College Admission Counseling released their State of College Admission Report. The result of their survey revealed that colleges ranked the application essay as the 5th most-important factor in the admission process. We assist you to find your best-fit university, create a personalised roadmap, ace your standardised tests, craft the perfect essay, build candidacy through extracurriculars, and more. Further down, we've also got another example of an effective admissions essay from a Singaporean author, who was admitted into two Ivy League colleges among others. In this blog, we have an example of admissions essay so epic that it got its author accepted to five Ivy league colleges and few other big name players. The first time is as you write each section individually. Check to see if each section is perfect before putting it all together in one essay. The second time is when you have put all of your essay together. Check it for flow, coherence and structure as well as checking for typos and incorrect grammar. Consider hiring a professional custom essay writing service like EssaySupply or at least, a proofreading / editing service to pick up on the mistakes you missed. Do not do it unless your application essay strictly asks for one. It is important that you allow adequate time to research all that Wharton has to offer. I suggest being very specific in detailing the opportunities you plan to take advantage of on campus. Think about classes you are particularly interested in or perhaps professors you are looking to study with, etc. Instead, carefully think through how each offering will allow you to fill in your skill and/or experience gaps. After that, requirements vary depending on whether you are a recent high school graduate, student transferring from another institution or returning adult. Here are 4 other tips to help write a successful college admission essay. Year after year, Crimson helps students gain admission into all 8 Ivy League universities. Students who work with us are up to four times more likely to get an Ivy offer than the general applicant.

Environmental Injustice and Racism in Flint Michigan - Free Essay Example

It is no secret, most Americans have heard of the avoidable and abject failure of government on the local, state and federal level; environmental authorities; and water company officials to prevent the mass poisoning of hundreds of children and adults in Flint, Michigan from April 2014 to December 2018. The Flint case is particularly intriguing on the grounds that there cannot be environmental injustice without racism playing a vital role. As has been very much pitched, an essential diver of the harming was a severity measure forced by the metropolitan Emergency Fiscal Manager (EFM). The EFM, obviously, was forced by Michigans governor Rick Snyder in light of Flints budgetary emergency. The story is critical as it is one of those uncommon moments when the public can really see the auxiliary idea of ecological prejudice, which, offers us an opportunity to move past exceedingly contracted originations of racism that have described the liberal and neoliberal times1. The ongoing harming in Flint, Michigan, is a ground-breaking case of both environmental racism and injustice. The Poisoning of Flint In 2010 Rick Snyder was elected the legislative head of Michigan. In 2011 he proclaimed Flint to be in a money-related emergency and set it under control of the emergency management. He did this under Michigans Public Act 436, which permits the governor to allocate an EFM to regions and school areas. EFMs render the typical forces of the civic chairman and city committee pointless, as their goal is to restore the city to financial dissolvability. In spite of the profoundly mythologized tradition of state principle in the US, it is not ensured. subsequently, 1Là ³pez, Ian Haney. 2014. Dog Whistle Politics: How Coded Appeals have Reinvented Racism and Wrecked the Middle Class. New York: Oxford University Press. the burden of an EFM, in the expressions of one Flint resident, thoroughly pulverizes vote-based systems2, the meaning not staying true to democracy. Flint experienced four such managers from 2011 to April 2015, when Snyder declared that Flints financial emergency was understood. By then, the city was swung over to a warning board. The topic of how precisely Flint moved toward becoming financially dissolvable is essential. A wide range of measures was sanctioned, including changing the water supply.The city of Flint utilized the Detroit River for its water3. Flint had a concurrence with Detroit that it tried to renegotiate at the beginning of the water emergency to bring down its expenses. In spite of the fact that it was displayed to the general population as though Detroit was ending its concurrence with Flint, in all actuality, Flints EFM rejected the renegotiated terms and subsequently looked for an alternative water source4. Flint distinguished Lake Huron as a potential water source, yet this would require the formation of another provincial water specialist and pipeline. The arrangement would spare the city $18 million more than eight years. The catch, in any case, was that the pipeline would not be finished for a long time, at some point in 2016. Not wasting time, then EFM, Darnell Earley, chose to utilize the Flint River. A sensible thing to ask now is, For what reason did not they utilize the Flint River in the first case? Well maybe since it is famously contaminated from GMs longstanding mechanical 2American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan. 2016. â€Å"Here’s to Flint: Documentary on Flint Water Crisis.† March 8. Accessed December 5, 2018. htt ps://www.aclumich.org/herestoflint. 3Craven, J., and T. Tynes. 2016. â€Å"The Racist Roots of Flint’s Water Crisis.† Huffington Post, February 3. Accessed May 5, 2016. https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/racist-roots-of- flints-water-crisis_us_56b12953e4b04f9b57d7b118. 4American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan. 2016. â€Å"Here’s to Flint: Documentary on Flint Water Crisis.† March 8. Accessed December 5, 2018. https://www.aclumich.org/herestoflint. action5. As one Flint occupant clarified, everybody knows how gross the River is!6. For different reasons, the Flint River is not just exceptionally contaminated but additionally difficult to treat. Therefore, no one viewed it as a reasonable wellspring of metropolitan water. At the point when the city of Flint changed its water source to the River, the GM offices in Flint at first did in like manner, as they were served by the same water framework. Be that as it may, GM before long whined that the water was so corrosive that it caused motor parts to rust. Likewise, GM requested that city authorities be permitted to come back to the Detroit River and was allowed authorization to do as such7.This ought to have been a noteworthy warning: If the water was destructive to vehicle parts, may it not present an issue to people and other living creatures? State and neighborhood authorities ought to have promptly mediated in Flint residents water supply. However, they did not do anything. At this moment we see not just how absolutely depreciated and expendable residents were according to EFMs, yet we additionally observe the power and rationale of a bigger arrangement of social relations which organize financial dissolvability regardless of anything else. The water tests, both their discoveries and the mystery encompassing them, uncover a stunning dismissal for human life. Testing demonstrated disturbing lead levels. A few tests discovered lead levels seven times over the government legitimate limit, while others were two thousand over8. The rea dings activated discussions between ecological authorities in Flint, the 5Carmody, Steve. 2016. â€Å"How the Flint River Got So Toxic.† The Verge, February 26. Accessed June 6, 2016 https://www.theverge.com/2016/2/26/11117022/flint-michigan-water-crisis- lead-pollution-history 6American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan. 2016. â€Å"Here’s to Flint: Documentary on Flint Water Crisis.† March 8. Accessed December 5, 2018. https://www.aclumich.org/herestoflint.7 Ibid. 8 Ibid. State of Michigan, and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Miguel Del Toral of the EPA was essential in revealing the extension and gravity of the toxic substance, its purposeful nature, and the concealment of the local and state authorities. when Del Toral saw the lead levels, he quickly asked about what sort of hostile to the destructive agent(s) Flint was utilizing. The city of Flint reacted to Del Torals request by expressing that it was improving enemy of destructive measures9. The truth was that Flint had no measures set up. Underscoring the legislative issues of somberness is the way that, as indicated by CNN, including the agent would have cost $100 every day.

Augustus Of The Roman Empire - 1365 Words

Julius Cesar, the Dictator of the Roman Empire adopted his grandnephew, also known as Octavian in his will. After Cesar was assassinated Augustus wanted nothing more than to â€Å"claim his inheritance and to avenge his slain â€Å"father†(ColeSymes).† This vengeance left constant warfare that came to an end after the victory at Actium. At this point in time Rome was no longer a republic. Augustus ruled for four years as an independent citizen then accepted his title as â€Å"emperor.† Augustus was the first roman emperor and led Rome’s transformation from republic to empire. Augustus never claimed the title as emperor for himself, but rather tried to lead the country as best as he could, while still leaving limited power to the people. Augustus†¦show more content†¦Augustus also reformed the religious systems in Rome that had been previously destroyed by constant warfare. Augustus thought that such a reform of the â€Å"old religion, and a renewed trust in the traditional gods would help restore the confidence of the people(Wasson, 2016).† Augustus also â€Å"revived the priesthoods in Rome and ended up being appointed as the Pontifex Maximus(Fife, 2012).† This newly acquired position left Augustus as the ruler of the Roman Empire secularly and religiously. Now that Augustus had two highly influential roles he had unprecedented power and control over two separate spheres. This high amount of power could have been easily abused, but it was not. Augustus revived the Ludi Secularse which was a religious celebration that occurred once every one hundred and ten years. Augustus was involved in the revived secular games â€Å"which had been omitted because of the disturbances of the civil war(McDermott).† Augustus also guided the construction of an Imperial Cult. This Imperial Cult was made for worship of the Emperor as a god. Some may say this is egotistical since he himself is the Emperor, but he was made the Pontifex Maximus, and was a true savior to Rome. Augustus also aided in the construction of a multitude of the city’s ancient temples,Show MoreRelatedAugustus And The Creation Of The Roman Empire989 Words   |  4 Pagesand paid to follow Augustus by Augustus. Although some were Augustus own biographers, some are also opponents of Augustus and his entitlement and takeover of the Roman Republic/Empire. These sources are also the only real documented information about Augustus that have been found or retrieved, and unknown to be based on facts, or just opinion and conjecture, or promoted by Augustus himself. One of the sympathetic sources towards Augustus was, Suetonius, who thought Augustus was a great leaderRead MoreRoman Empire: Emperor Caesar Augustus 660 Words   |  3 PagesOctavian Augustus did. Augustus was a great leader. Leaders are necessary because they need to show leadership amongst the people and unite the people as one doing anything to keep them safe. Caesar Octavian Augustus was one of Rome’s greatest leaders by showing that at the age of 19, he can rule one of the most powerful nations by any means including war (http://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/empire/augustus.html) Octavian Augustus is one of the fiercest leaders in the history of the Roman Empire becauseRead MoreContributions of Augustus to the founding of the Roman Empire1805 Words   |  8 Pagesthis only came to be through the change from a Roman Republic to the Roman Empire, and only one man could change this. Augustus. Augustus was the first Roman Emperor, and quite frankly the founder of the Roman Empire. Augustus commanded legions of Roman Soldiers, reformed the populous to run more efficiently and started the long reign of Emperors in Rome. Augustus was the sole reason the Roman Empire rose from the ashes of the republic. Augustus was born into an equestrian family as Gaius OctaviusRead MoreAugustus s Influence On The Roman Empire1260 Words   |  6 PagesAugustus is known to be the first Roman emperor, and the founder of Rome, known for politically transforming the Roman republic to the early Roman Empire. During his rule his influence on artwork and architecture illustrated a classical style, and often they was a reflection of the â€Å"public image† of his rule, as well as his â€Å"new agenda†. (115) Augustus was quickly seen as a restorer of Rome. Augustus commissioned many large scale building projects such as the Campus Martius, as well as elaborateRead MoreHan Dynasty and Augustus Caesar’s Roman Empire1007 Words   |  4 PagesIn the forty years of Augustus Caesar’s reign—from 27 B.C. to A.D. 14—he created a new order that was the beginning of the Roman Empire. In 202 B.C., the year in which the Romans defeated the Carthaginians at the battle of Za ma, Liu Pang won control of China and established the Han dynasty. The Roman Empire as well as its Eastern contemporary, the Han Dynasty, in China established strong central governments but experienced a decline caused by both internal and external influences; however, ChinaRead MoreAdministration of Roman Empire During Augustus Reign835 Words   |  4 PagesAdministration of the Empire Much chaos surrounded Rome with the fall of the Roman Republic. After seizing Egypt, Octavian returned to Rome and became the first emperor of the Roman Empire in 27 BCE. â€Å"His restructuring of the senatorial and equestrian orders, and the subsequent emulation between the two, provided the human resources, power dynamics, and incentives necessary for his administration†. It was easier for Augustus to carryout such major changes in administration because there was a universalRead MoreAugustus Caesar and the Roman Empire Essay591 Words   |  3 PagesIn the antique land of Rome, a shattered visage of a man lies. This statue, in frigid stone, represents a man who built one of the most formidable empires in human history, all while setting the course for its eventual downfall. As the morning sun rises over the horizon in a blaze of glory, the statue illuminates and reveals the somewhat melancholic ivy as it slowly envelops the forgotten emperor. Beside the statue, hanging on a ruined stone wall, is a painting of the city that once stood tall andRead MoreGaius Octavius Augustus: First Emperor of the Roman Empire1498 Words   |  6 PagesGaius Octavius Augustus First Emperor of the Roman Empire  Clinton Jenkins Hum 121 Octavius Research Paper 10/11/12 Gaius Octavius Augustus First Emperor of the Roman Empire Gaius Octavius, better known to historians as Augustus, succeeded his great uncle Julius Caesar following his assassination. In his wake, Augustus would become the first Emperor of the newly formed Roman Empire and bring massive, sweeping revisions to Roman law as well as centralize the government, militaryRead More Augustus and how he changed the roman Empire Essay1071 Words   |  5 Pages Augustus and How He Changed The Roman Empire nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Two problems facing the late Roman Empire was the instability and non unification caused by inner family civil wars. Romes rapid expansion, after the Punic Wars, resulted in changes that permanently divided the state. Both Aristocrats and Plebeians wanted total control of Rome and tried to destroy each other. Civil war was the the only way to solve problems in politics. Consequently, the power of the military became strongRead MoreTransformation Of Julius Caesar1324 Words   |  6 PagesAugustus Caesar was the first emperor of the Roman Empire. Before Rome was an empire, Rome was a republic, which came to an end because of civil wars. During the republic, there was a representative government, but during the empire, an emperor oversaw making decisions, which showed that being an emperor came with a great amount of power. This was a huge transformation for the Romans, which Caesar made positive by bringing peace and stability to Rome. Augustus Caesar had a significant transformative

The Natural History Museum Of Los Angeles Essay - 2310 Words

The Natural History Museum of Los Angeles offers a surface level depiction of Mesoamerican civilization and culture. It excludes essential information and instead gives a shallow representation that offers implications of a barbaric civilization. To start off, a Natural History Museum is usually a place where the public can visit to obtain knowledge on the history of the earth and its inhabitants. Much about people’s culture and customs is found in a Natural History museum, especially people that have made a difference or played a role in history that we learn today. Therefore, the Indigenous peoples are represented in these precise museums. The indigenous people have various amount of customs that are even used today, however, the fact that many of their descriptions are led by the word â€Å"histor† or â€Å"ancient† almost makes the guests at museums believe that these indigenous people are no longer alive, and that is incorrect. The key objective for a Natural History museum is to simply help connect the understanding of human beings, connections based on culture, communities, to the earth and to each other. Precisely, The Natural History Museum of Los Angeles does not fully represent in depth the qua lities that made the indigenous people so innovative, intelligent, and powerful; Therefore, the importance of the indigenous people is almost overshadowed by everything else that is presented at the museum. Overall, the indigenous people are represented here because of theirShow MoreRelatedEssay about Architect of the Modern Age1219 Words   |  5 PagesFrank Gehry is a world renowned architect known for several important buildings such as the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao and the Walt Disney Concert Hall. He was born in Toronto Canada February 28, 1929 but moved with his family to Los Angeles, California in 1947(1). Gehry attended the University of Southern California and graduated in 1954 with a degree in architecture (1). In 1962, he established his own architectural firm in 1962 now called Gehry Partners, LLP (1). In the beginning, Gehry used theRead MoreOil Station With High Oil Prices1399 Words   |  6 Pagesfelt depressed after you went to oil station with high oil price? Los A ngeles, the place we are living, has abundant oil to produce. Why we are still suffering a high oil price even Los Angeles is one of the oil production places? In the center of Los Angeles, we had found an integrated tar pit left over by history. Do you know what the purpose of tar pit is? In the United States, most of asphalt was transported from Los Angeles and asphalts were used for road construction. As asphalt and gasolineRead MoreQuestions On Downtown Los Angeles1158 Words   |  5 Pagess94149.gridserver.com/things-to-do/ Title tag: Downtown L.A. Things To Do | Hotel Indigo Downtown Los Angeles Meta description: Los Angeles is a city for every type of dreamer. Whether you are on a family vacation or romantic retreat, check out our pro-tip list to get you started. Explore our neighborhood. With an enduring history of entertainment and a unique melting pot of cultures, downtown Los Angeles has become an international hub for artists, musicians and creators of all kinds. In 1894, theRead MoreThe Center Of Entertainment At Hotel1109 Words   |  5 PagesThe center of entertainment. At Hotel Indigo Los Angeles Downtown, you’ll experience the city’s thriving creativity, urban vibe and unique multiculturalism both inside and out. One of four towers central to downtown’s new metropolis development, our city center hotel offers convenient access to a variety of nearby entertaining, dining and shopping options, including L.A. Live, the Staples Center, the L.A. Convention Center and the Jewelry District. Our lobby’s touchscreen neighborhood guide makesRead MoreModern Architecture in Japan and India1532 Words   |  6 Pagesregion and national culture there are periods of rejection of the past and periods of revival. These periods are often reflected through architecture as architects, developers, engineers, lay people and even the national governments seek to reflect history with the inclusion of modernity, meaning modern buildings with elements of tradition as well as all the modern amenities sought by users. In an architectural sense muc h of the focus is on theory within the academy, while the actual development ofRead MoreMini Project1983 Words   |  8 PagesCampus and Neighborhood or of Downtown Los Angeles Complete either (A) a scavenger hunt of the USC campus and University Park neighborhood or (B) a scavenger hunt of downtown Los Angeles. At the end of completing your hunt, write a short essay (1 page) in which you explain the most interesting item you discovered by doing this scavenger hunt. Note: The scavenger hunt project should be typed Complete either (A) a scavenger hunt of downtown Los Angeles or (B) a scavenger hunt of the USCRead MoreMega Cities And World Cities1299 Words   |  6 PagesBangkok, Mumbai and Manila. Los Angeles as a World City in the developed world and Manila as a World City in the developing world have similarities and differences. Spatial Distribution Most World Cities are in developed nations and the majority of these are located in the northern hemisphere, in particular, north America and Europe. Other World Cities are more spread outside of North America and Europe such as Sao Paulo in South America or Sydney in Australia. Los Angeles is located on America’sRead MoreLos Angeles County Museum Of Art1874 Words   |  8 PagesLos Angeles is a beautiful city filled with many classy shops, modern houses and many diverse restaurants base from China, Korea, America as well as many other different countries. However, there is a museum that located right in the heart of Los Angeles where 6th street and Wilshire Boulevard parallel with each other. This is a very interesting place with many tourists and people visiting each day. The museum is a familiar attraction for many LA locals, and it is also the largest art museum in theRead MoreEssay about Exploring The Natural History Museum2058 Words   |  9 PagesThe Natural History Museum is extraordinary place to explore and learn. It’s fun and breathtaking. The museum served as an agricultural fairground from 1872 until 1910. The original structure of the building from the 1913 and today’s structure are combined with a blend of many styles. Like a Spanish Renaissance ornamentation in the terracotta trimmings. There is a Romanesque style in the arched windows and the brick walls. The Beaux-Arts tradition is a T-shape floor plan. The building measures 75Read MoreEssay on Mark Ryden- Contemporary Artist.841 Words   |  4 Pagessituated in Los Angeles, is a treasure trove of bric-a-brac collected from flea-markets and op shops; endless amounts of toys, religious statues, dolls, antiques and many items described only as obscure (including skeletons and anatomical figures) are his models, arranged to be painted and recorded by the artist. Ryden also gains his inspiration, not only from art galleries but from various museums. These include medical museums (e.g. The Museo la Specola) and museums of natural history. This combination

Dimmesdales Confession in The Scarlet Letter free essay sample

This paper looks at importance of Dimmesdales confession in the novel `The Scarlet Letter.` This paper is an exploration of the impact of speech and silence in the novel, `The Scarlet Letter.` It pays special attention to the centrality of Dimmesdales confession. The paper discusses the issues of sin and confession in the novel, with a unique approach to the meaning of sin to Hester and Dimmesdale. According to this author, Dimmesdale, and not Hester is the key to this story, since his silence and refusal to confess control the story, its outcome and as such, the development of the other characters. Dimmesdale finds inspiration and power in the act of sin; he is most potent when he is most perverse. It is a passionate sexual transgression that produces Pearl; it is his failure to confess his adultery and the resultant hypocrisy that gives force to his sermons and gains him respect in the eyes of the community; his decision to leave with Hester and his sexual excitement lent him unaccustomed physical energy (2347); his incitement to do some strange, wild, wicked thing (2348) allows him to write with earnest haste and ecstacy a sermon with such an impulsive flow of thought and emotion, that he fancied himself inspired (2352). We will write a custom essay sample on Dimmesdales Confession in The Scarlet Letter or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page

Neanderthal Essays - Stone Age, Pleistocene, Paleolithic

Neanderthal Neanderthal. The Neanderthals lived in areas ranging from Western Europe through central Asia from about 200,000 to between 36,000 and 24,000 years ago. The Neanderthals lived in groups of 30 to 50 individuals, they invented many of the tool types that were to be perfected by fully sapient peoples, they had weapons adequate to deal with both the cave lion and cave bear, they used body paint, buried their dead. Neanderthal Man survived through the Ice Age. They are thought to have had fire. Neanderthals lived side by side with modern humans for over 10,000 years. There are many theories on why the Neanderthals disappeared. Most of them involve Homo Sapiens in one way or another, considering that the Neanderthal's extinction coincides with the early human's estimated arrival in Europe from their original home in Africa. The first theory states that modern humans killed off the Neanderthals. With a much more sophisticated technology, Neanderthals would have had to compete with modern humans for their meals. This would have definitely led to fight with starvation and a decrease in the overall Neanderthal population, which could have been the cause of extinction. Also, in contrast to Cro-Magnons, who lived to well into there fifties, Neanderthals had a much shorter life span, barely surviving until the age of forty. The Neanderthals may have reacted to the new humans as enemies. Since the modern humans are presumed to have been smarter than the Neanderthals, and since modern humans are still alive today, this theory concludes that fighting wiped the Neanderthals out. However, this theory does have its faults. First of all, why would two cultures begin to fight after many thousands of years of peaceful coexistence? Also, it shows a lot of human arrogance to assume that early man could take an entire spe cies that was stronger and almost as smart as them and fight it to extinction. The second theory suggests that diseases introduced by the modern humans to whom Neanderthal man was not immune wiped out Neanderthals. It is possible that when Cro-Magnon man first encounter Neanderthal man, he could have introduced new devastating diseases, as the conquistadors did in Latin America. Neanderthals, not being immune to these illnesses would have quickly perished. However, it can also be considered that when the two human races met, war quickly followed. Cro-Magnon man may have possibly exterminated the Neanderthals. In early human history, man has fought his own race for years to justly claim or protect what he considers his. Although this theory is plausible, it is not probable, considering that the Neanderthals lived in close proximity to modern man for so long. Still, it is possible that there was a disease, which caused the Neanderthals to die out. The last theory states that Neanderthals were not in fact a separate species, but interbred to a greater or lesser extent with the incoming Homo sapiens, whose genes eventually became dominant at the eventual expense of the genes delivering Neanderthal characteristics. This hypothesis comes from the fact that Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons inhabited the same regions of Europe for thousands of years. It is not beyond a doubt that they did come in contact with one another, possibly even trading and communicating. Neanderthals and modern humans became one species, through thousands of years of interbreeding. Supporters of this theory state that some modern day Europeans have facial features similar to Neanderthal man. Neanderthal genes may have been inserted into the human gene pool, and Human genes may have been added to the Neanderthals. At this point, Neanderthals and humans may have evolved together at an incredible rate, becoming one race in a relatively short period of time. On the other hand, a disease, a war, or an increase in population causing the natural resources to be inadequate for keeping so many hominids alive might have cut off Neanderthals suddenly from contact with the humans, possibly. In conclusion we may never be sure of the fate of the Neanderthals, until archaeological finds provide the evidence. However, they did have a human awareness for many things. Neanderthals were compassionate enough to bury their dead, care for their injured and ill, develop complex tools, create some form of ritual behavior, and communicate

A Detailed History of Crash Test Dummies

A Detailed History of Crash Test Dummies The first crash test dummy was the Sierra Sam created in 1949. This 95th percentile adult male crash test dummy was developed by Sierra Engineering Co. under a contract with the United States Air Force, to be used for evaluation of aircraft ejection seats on rocket sled tests. - Source FTSS In 1997, GMs Hybrid III crash test dummies officially became the industry standard for testing to comply with government frontal impact regulations and airbag safety. GM developed this test device nearly 20 years prior in 1977 to provide a biofidelic measurement tool - crash test dummies that behave very similarly to human beings. As it did with its earlier design, Hybrid II, GM shared this cutting-edge technology with government regulators and the auto industry. The sharing of this tool was made in the name of improved safety testing and reduced highway injuries and fatalities worldwide. The 1997 version of Hybrid III is the GM invention with some modifications. It marks another milestone in the automaker’s trailblazing journey for safety. Hybrid III is state-of-the-art for testing advanced restraint systems; GM has been using it for years in the development of front-impact airbags. It provides a broad spectrum of reliable data that can be related to the effects of crashes o n a human injury. Hybrid III features a posture representative of the way drivers and passengers sit in vehicles. All crash test dummies are faithful to the human form they simulate - in overall weight, size, and proportion. Their heads are designed to respond like the human head in a crash situation. It is symmetrical and the forehead deflects much the way a persons would if struck in a collision. The chest cavity has a steel rib cage that simulates the mechanical behavior of a human chest in a crash. The rubber neck bends and stretches biofidelically, and the knees also are designed to respond to impact, similar to human knees. The Hybrid III crash test dummy has a vinyl skin and is equipped with sophisticated electronic tools including accelerometers, potentiometers, and load cells. These tools measure the acceleration, deflection, and forces that various body parts experience during crash deceleration. This advanced device is being improved continuously and was built on a scientific foundation of biomechanics, medical data and input, and testing that involved human cadavers and animals. Biomechanics is the study of the human body and how it behaves mechanically. Universities conducted early biomechanical research using live human volunteers in some very controlled crash tests. Historically, the auto industry had evaluated restraint systems using volunteer testing with humans. The development of Hybrid III served as a launching pad to advance the study of crash forces and their effects on a human injury. All earlier crash test dummies, even GMs Hybrid I and II, could not provide adequate insight to translate test data into injury-reducing designs for cars and trucks. Early crash test dummies were very crude and had a simple purpose - to help engineers and researchers verify the effectiveness of restraints or safety belts. Before GM developed Hybrid I in 1968, dummy manufacturers had no consistent methods to produce the devices. The basic weight and size of the body parts were based on anthropological studies, but the dummies were inconsistent from unit to unit. The science of anthropomorphic dummies was in its infancy and their production quality varied. The 1960s and Development of Hybrid I During the 1960s, GM researchers created Hybrid I by merging the best parts of two primitive dummies. In 1966, Alderson Research Laboratories produced the VIP-50 series for GM and Ford. It was also used by the National Bureau of Standards. This was the first dummy manufactured specifically for the auto industry. A year later, Sierra Engineering introduced Sierra Stan, a competitive model. Neither satisfied GM engineers, who made their own dummy by combining the best features of both - hence the name Hybrid I. GM used this model internally but shared its design with competitors through special committee meetings at the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). Hybrid I was more durable and produced more repeatable results than its predecessors. The use of these early dummies was sparked by U.S. Air Force testing that had been conducted to develop and improve pilot restraint and ejection systems. From the late forties through the early fifties, the military used crash test dummies and crash sleds to test a variety of applications and human tolerance to injury. Previously they had used human volunteers, but rising safety standards required higher speed tests, and the higher speeds were no longer safe for human subjects. To test pilot-restraint harnesses, one high-speed sled was propelled by rocket engines and accelerated up to 600 mph. Col. John Paul Stapp shared the results of Air Force crash-dummy research in 1956 at the first annual conference involving auto manufacturers. Later, in 1962, the GM Proving Ground introduced the first, automotive, impact sled (HY-GE sled). It was capable of simulating actual collision acceleration waveforms produced by full-scale cars. Four years after that, GM Research originated a versatile method for determining the extent of injury hazard produced when measuring impact forces on anthropomorphic dummies during laboratory tests. Aircraft Safety Ironically, the auto industry has dramatically out-paced aircraft manufacturers in this technical expertise over the years. Automakers worked with the aircraft industry in the mid-1990s to bring them up to speed with the advances in crash testing as related to human tolerance and injuries. NATO countries were particularly interested in automotive crash research because there were problems in helicopter crashes and with high-speed ejections of pilots. It was thought that the auto data might help make aircraft safer. Government Regulation and Developing Hybrid II When Congress passed the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1966, the design and manufacture of automobiles became a regulated industry. Shortly thereafter, a debate began between the government and some manufacturers about the credibility of the test devices like the crash dummies. The National Highway Safety Bureau insisted that Aldersons VIP-50 dummy be used to validate restraint systems. They required 30 mile-per-hour head-on, barrier tests into a rigid wall. Opponents claimed the research results obtained from testing with this crash test dummy were not repeatable from a manufacturing standpoint and were not defined in engineering terms. Researchers could not rely on the consistent performance of the test units. Federal courts agreed with these critics. GM did not take part in the legal protest. Instead, GM improved upon the Hybrid I crash test dummy, responding to issues that arose in SAE committee meetings. GM developed drawings that defined the crash test dummy and created calibration tests that would standardize its performance in a controlled laboratory setting. In 1972, GM handed the drawings and calibrations to the dummy manufacturers and the government. The new GM Hybrid II crash test dummy satisfied the court, the government, and the manufacturers, and it became the standard for frontal crash testing to comply with U.S. automotive regulations for restraint systems. GMs philosophy has always been to share crash test dummy innovation with competitors and earn no profit in the process. Hybrid III: Mimicking Human Behavior In 1972 while GM was sharing Hybrid II with the industry, experts at GM Research began a ground-breaking effort. Their mission was to develop a crash test dummy that more accurately reflected the biomechanics of the human body during a vehicle crash. This would be called Hybrid III. Why was this necessary? GM was already conducting tests that far-exceeded government requirements and the standards of other domestic manufacturers. Right from the start, GM developed every one of its crash dummies to respond to a particular need for a test measurement and enhanced safety design. Engineers required a test device that would allow them to take measurements in unique experiments they had developed to improve the safety of GM vehicles. The goal of the Hybrid III research group was to develop a third-generation, human-like crash test dummy whose responses were closer to biomechanical data than the Hybrid II crash test dummy. The cost was not an issue. Researchers studied the way people sat in vehicles and the relationship of their posture to their eye position. They experimented with and changed the materials to make the dummy, and considered adding internal elements such as a rib cage. The stiffness of materials reflected bio-mechanical data. Accurate, numerical control machinery was used to manufacture the improved dummy consistently. In 1973, GM held the first international seminar with the worlds leading experts to discuss human-impact response characteristics. Every previous gathering of this kind had focused on injury. But now, GM wanted to investigate the way people responded during crashes. With this insight, GM developed a crash dummy that behaved much more closely to humans. This tool provided more meaningful lab data, enabling design changes that could actually help prevent injury. GM has been a leader in developing testing technologies to help manufacturers make safer cars and trucks. GM also communicated with the SAE committee throughout this development process to compile input from dummy and auto manufacturers alike. Only a year after the Hybrid III research began, GM responded to a government contract with a more refined dummy. In 1973, GM created the GM 502, which borrowed early information the research group had learned. It included some postural improvements, a new head, and better joint character istics. In 1977, GM made Hybrid III commercially available, including all the new design features GM had researched and developed. In 1983, GM petitioned the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) for permission to use Hybrid III as an alternative test device for government compliance. GM also provided the industry with its targets for acceptable dummy performance during safety testing. These targets (Injury Assessment Reference Values) were critical in translating Hybrid III data into safety improvements. Then in 1990, GM asked that the Hybrid III dummy be the only acceptable test device to meet government requirements. A year later, the International Standards Organization (ISO) passed a unanimous resolution acknowledging the superiority of Hybrid III. The Hybrid III is now the standard for international frontal impact testing. Over the years, Hybrid III and other dummies have undergone a number of improvements and changes. For example, GM developed a deformable insert that is used routinely in GM development tests to indicate any movement of the lap belt from the pelvis and into the abdomen. Also, the SAE brings together the talents of the car companies, parts suppliers, dummy manufacturers, and U.S. government agencies in cooperative efforts to enhance test dummy capability. A recent 1966 SAE project, in conjunction with NHTSA, enhanced the ankle and hip joint. However, dummy manufacturers are very conservative about changing or enhancing standard devices. Generally, an auto manufacturer must first show the need for a specific design evaluation to improve safety. Then, with industry agreement, the new measuring capability can be added. SAE acts as a technical clearinghouse to manage and minimize these alterations. Just how accurate are these anthropomorphic test devices? At best, they are predictors of what may happen generally in the field because no two real people are the same in size, weight or proportions. However, tests require a standard, and modern dummies have proven to be effective prognosticators. Crash-test dummies consistently prove that standard, three-point safety belt systems are very effective restraints - and the data holds up well when compared to real-world crashes. Safety belts cut driver crash deaths by 42 percent. Adding airbags raises the protection to approximately 47 percent. Adapting to Airbags Airbag testing in the late seventies generated another need. Based on tests with crude dummies, GM engineers knew children and smaller occupants could be vulnerable to the aggressiveness of airbags. Airbags must inflate at very high speeds to protect occupants in a crash - literally in less than the blink of an eye. In 1977, GM developed the child airbag dummy. Researchers calibrated the dummy using data gathered from a study involving small animals. The Southwest Research Institute conducted this testing to determine what impacts the subjects could safely sustain. Later GM shared the data and the design through the SAE. GM also needed a test device to simulate a small female for testing of driver airbags. In 1987, GM transferred the Hybrid III technology to a dummy representing a 5th percentile female. Also in the late 1980s, the Center for Disease Control issued a contract for a family of Hybrid III dummies to help test passive restraints. Ohio State University won the contract and sought GMs help. In cooperation with an SAE committee, GM contributed to the development of the Hybrid III Dummy Family, which included a 95th percentile male, a small female, a six-year-old, child dummy, and a new three-year-old. Each has Hybrid III technology. In 1996, GM, Chrysler, and Ford became concerned about air bag inflation-induced injuries and petitioned the government through the American Automobile Manufacturers Association (AAMA) to address out-of-position occupants during airbag deployments. The goal was to implement test procedures endorsed by the ISO - which use the small female dummy for driver-side testing and the six- and three-year-old dummies, as well as an infant dummy for the passenger side. An SAE committee later developed a series of infant dummies with one of the leading test device manufacturers, First Technology Safety Systems. Six-month-old, 12-month-old, and 18-month-old dummies are now available to test the interaction of airbags with child restraints. Known as CRABI or Child Restraint Air Bag Interaction dummies, they enable testing of rearward-facing infant restraints when placed in the front, passenger seat equipped with an airbag. The various dummy sizes and types, which come in small, average, and very l arge, allow GM to implement an extensive matrix of tests and crash-types. Most of these tests and evaluations are not mandated, but GM routinely conducts tests not required by law. In the 1970s, side-impact studies required another version of the test devices. NHTSA, in conjunction with the University of Michigans Research and Development Center, developed a special side-impact dummy, or SID. Europeans then created the more sophisticated EuroSID. Subsequently, GM researchers made significant contributions through the SAE to the development of a more biofidelic device called BioSID, which is used now in development testing. In the 1990s, the U.S. auto industry worked to create a special, small occupant dummy to test side-impact airbags. Through USCAR, a consortium formed to share technologies among various industries and government departments, GM, Chrysler and Ford jointly developed SID-2s. The dummy mimics small females or adolescents and helps measure their tolerance of side-impact airbag inflation. U.S. manufacturers are working with the international community to establish this smaller, side-impact device as the starting basis for an adult dummy to be used in the international standard for side impact performance measurement. They are encouraging the acceptance of international safety standards, and building consensus to harmonize methods and tests. The automotive industry is highly committed to harmonizing standards, tests and methods as more and more vehicles are sold to a global market. The Future of Car Safety Testing What is the future? GMs mathematical models are providing valuable data. Mathematical testing also permits more iteration in a shorter time. GMs transition from mechanical to electronic airbag sensors created an exciting opportunity. Present and future airbag systems have electronic flight recorders as part of their crash sensors. Computer memory will capture field data from the collision event and store crash information never before available. With this real-world data, researchers will be able to validate lab results and modify dummies, computer-simulations and other tests. The highway becomes the test lab, and every crash becomes a way to learn more about how to protect people, said Harold Bud Mertz, a retired GM safety and biomechanical expert. Eventually, it might be possible to include crash recorders for collisions all around the car. GM researchers constantly refine all aspects of the crash tests to improve safety results. For example, as restraint systems help to eliminate more and more catastrophic upper-body injuries, safety engineers are noticing disabling, lower-leg trauma. GM researchers are beginning to design better lower leg responses for dummies. They have also added â€Å"skin† to the necks to keep airbags from interfering with the neck vertebrae during tests. Someday, on-screen computer dummies may be replaced by virtual humans, with hearts, lungs, and all the other vital organs. But its not likely that those electronic scenarios will replace the real thing in the near future. Crash dummies will continue to provide GM researchers and others with remarkable insight and intelligence about occupant crash protection for many years to come. A special thanks to Claudio Paolini